Radically different
Promex Industries has promoted Chief Operating Officer Dave Fromm to president and COO of the medtech supplier and its QP Technologies division effective immediately. Fromm will oversee strategic direction, operational execution and the the packaging and assembly company’s growth. Promex Industries and QP Technologies CEO Dick Otte formerly served as president. “After more than 30…
The post Medtech supplier Promex names new president appeared first on Medical Design and Outsourcing.
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In the first week of the landmark trial between Elon Musk and OpenAI, Musk took the stand in a crisp black suit and tie and argued that OpenAI CEO Sam Altman and president Greg Brockman had deceived him into bankrolling the company. Along the way, he warned that AI could destroy us all and sat through revelations that he had poached OpenAI employees for his own companies. He even confessed, to some audible gasps in the courtroom, that his own AI company, xAI, which makes the chatbot Grok, uses OpenAI’s models to train its own.
The federal courthouse in Oakland, California, was packed with armies of lawyers carrying boxes of exhibits, journalists typing away at their laptops, and a handful of concerned OpenAI employees. Outside, protesters lined the streets, carrying signs urging people to quit ChatGPT, boycott Tesla, or both. Musk looked calm and comfortable, slipping in the occasional quip in his distinct South African accent. But he also was full of remorse.
“I was a fool who provided them free funding to create a startup,” Musk told the jury. He said when he cofounded OpenAI in 2015 with Altman and Brockman, he was donating to a nonprofit developing AI for the benefit of humanity, not to make the executives rich. “I gave them $38 million of essentially free funding, which they then used to create what would become an $800 billion company,” he said.
Musk is asking the court to remove Altman and Brockman from their roles and to unwind the restructuring that allowed OpenAI to operate a for-profit subsidiary. The outcome of the trial could upend OpenAI’s race toward an IPO at a valuation approaching $1 trillion. Meanwhile, xAI is expected to go public as a part of Musk’s rocket company SpaceX as early as June, at a target valuation of $1.75 trillion.
This week’s testimony revolved around a central question of the trial: why Musk is suing OpenAI. Musk argued he was trying to save OpenAI’s mission to develop AI safely by restoring the company to its original nonprofit structure. OpenAI’s lawyer, William Savitt, who once represented Musk and his electric-car company Tesla, countered that Musk was “never committed to OpenAI being a nonprofit” and instead was suing to undermine his competitor.
During his direct examination early in the week, Musk painted himself as a longtime advocate of AI safety. He said he cofounded OpenAI to create a “counterbalance to Google,” which was leading the AI race at the time. He said that when he asked Google cofounder Larry Page what happens if AI tries to wipe out humanity, Page told him, “That will be fine as long as artificial intelligence survives.”
“The worst-case scenario is a Terminator situation where AI kills us all,” Musk later told the jury.
Savitt stood at the lectern and argued that Musk was not a “paladin of safety and regulation.” As he cross-examined Musk in his sharp, surgical cadence, Savitt pointed out that xAI sued the state of Colorado in April over an AI law designed to prevent algorithmic discrimination.
Musk’s lawyer, Steven Molo, sprang to his feet to object. He asked the judge if he, too, could weigh in on ChatGPT’s safety record.
The lawyers then entered a heated debate about who was the true guardian of AI safety.
The sparring continued the next morning. “We all could die as a result of artificial intelligence!” said Molo, suggesting that OpenAI could not be trusted to build AI safely.
“Despite these risks, your client is creating a company that’s in the exact space,” Judge Yvonne Gonzalez Rogers said sternly, referring to xAI. “I suspect there’s plenty of people who don’t want to put the future of humanity in Mr. Musk’s hands.”
When the lawyers began talking over each other, the judge snapped. “This is not a trial on whether or not artificial intelligence has damaged humanity,” she said.
As Savitt continued to cross-examine Musk, he pressed on the idea that Musk had never been committed to keeping OpenAI a nonprofit. He also claimed that Musk waited too long to sue OpenAI, filing after the statute of limitations ran out.
Musk explained why he sued in 2024 rather than earlier, describing “three phases” in his views of OpenAI. In phase one, he was “enthusiastically supportive” of the company.” In phase two, “I started to lose confidence that they were telling me the truth,” he said. In phase three, “I’m sure they’re looting the nonprofit.”
In 2017, Musk and other OpenAI cofounders discussed creating a for-profit subsidiary to raise enough capital to build artificial general intelligence—powerful AI that can compete with humans on most cognitive tasks. Musk wanted a majority interest in the subsidiary and the right to choose a majority of the board members. He also pitched having Tesla acquire OpenAI. (He left OpenAI in 2018.)
“I was not opposed to there being a small for-profit that provides funding to the nonprofit,” he told the jury, “as long as the tail didn’t wag the dog.”
But it was only in late 2022, Musk testified, that he “lost trust in Altman” and his commitment to keeping the company a nonprofit. The key moment came, he said, when he learned that Microsoft would invest $10 billion in OpenAI.
“I texted Sam Altman, ‘What the hell is going on? This is a bait and switch,’” he told the jury. Microsoft would give $10 billion only if it expected “a very big financial return,” he said.
But Savitt argued that Musk was really suing to undermine OpenAI as a competitor to his empire of tech companies. While he was on the board of OpenAI, Musk was also running Tesla and his brain-implant company, Neuralink. He founded xAI in 2023.
Savitt pulled up an email that Musk had sent to a Tesla vice president in 2017 after hiring Andrej Karpathy, a founding member of OpenAI, to work at Tesla.“The OpenAI guys are gonna want to kill me. But it had to be done,” he wrote.
When asked about it, Musk was flustered. He claimed Karpathy had already decided to leave OpenAI when he recruited him to work at Tesla. “I believe it’s a free world,” he said.
Savitt pulled up another email that Musk sent to a cofounder at Neuralink in 2017. He wrote that they could “hire independently or directly from OpenAI.” When pressed about it, he sounded frazzled. “It’s a free country,” he said. “I can’t restrict their ability to hire people from other companies.”
Savitt also pointed out that Tesla, SpaceX, Neuralink, and X were socially beneficial for-profit companies, like OpenAI. He stressed that xAI was also a closed-source, for-profit company.
But Musk claimed that xAI was not a real competitor to OpenAI. “We’re not currently tracking to reach AGI first,” he told the jury.
In fact, Musk admitted that xAI uses OpenAI’s technology. In response to Savitt’s relentless questioning, he said xAI “partly” distills OpenAI’s models. Some people in the courtroom gasped.
Distillation is a technique where a smaller AI model is trained to mimic the behavior of larger, more capable models, so it can run faster and more cheaply while performing nearly as well. But OpenAI and other AI companies have pushed back against the practice. In February, OpenAI accused the Chinese AI company DeepSeek of distilling its AI models. In August 2025, Wired reported that Anthropic had blocked OpenAI’s access to Claude for violating the company’s terms of service, which prohibit, among other things, reverse-engineering its services and building competing products.
“It is standard practice to use other AIs to validate your AI,” argued Musk.
Next week, Stuart Russell, a computer scientist at UC Berkeley, will testify about AI safety. Brockman, who has been taking notes during Musk’s testimony, will also testify.
This story is part of MIT Technology Review’s ongoing coverage of the Musk v. Altman trial. Follow @techreview or @michelletomkim on X for up-to-the-minute reporting.
A study led by investigators at Weill Cornell Medicine has found that activated T cells secrete extracellular vesicles (EVs) containing DNA, which can enter other immune and tumor cells to stimulate the body’s defense systems. Preclinical experiments showed that this vesicle-associated DNA could be useful therapeutically, boosting T cell attacks against tumors that otherwise evoke little or no immune response.
Studies in live mice showed that these activated T cell-derived-EVs (AT-EVs) enhanced antigen processing and presentation (APP) in tumor cells and dendritic cells (DCs) across different immunologically cold tumors. The ATEVs also synergized with immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) to trigger antitumor immunity and hold back tumor growth.
The discovery extends the scientific understanding of the immune system, identifies a new strategy for boosting immunity against cancers, and potentially offers a new tool for delivering genetic payloads to other cells. “These findings reveal a natural mechanism for treating immunologically silent tumors and other diseases that stem from insufficient immune surveillance,” said David Lyden, MD, PhD, the Stavros S. Niarchos professor in pediatric cardiology and a member of the Gale and Ira Drukier Institute for Children’s Health and the Sandra and Edward Meyer Cancer Center at Weill Cornell Medicine.
Lyden is co-senior author of the researchers’ published paper in Cancer Cell, titled “Activated T cell extracellular vesicle DNA transfer enhances antigen presentation and anti-tumor immunity,” in which they stated, “We uncover a mechanism whereby activated T cell-derived extracellular vesicles (ATEVs) drive a positive feedback loop that enhances antigen presentation and immune responses in normal physiology and cancer … Notably, ATEVs hold promise as an acellular immunotherapy, restoring APP and synergizing with checkpoint blockade in immunotherapy-refractory tumors.”
Most animal cells secrete extracellular vesicles which can contain cargo including proteins, snippets of DNA, and other molecules. “Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nanoparticles naturally released by all living cells, containing proteins, lipids, and genetic material, that facilitate intercellular communication,” the investigators wrote.
The Lyden lab in recent years has made seminal discoveries about extracellular vesicles and their functions, finding for example that vesicles secreted by tumor cells can influence the immune system’s anti-tumor response. Their findings, they noted, “… raised the possibility that EVDNA from immune cells, such as T cells, may also have immune-related functions.” For their new study the team examined the roles of vesicles secreted by immune cells, and specifically T cells, which are the immune system’s principal tumor-fighters.
In their initial experiments, the scientists found that under physiological conditions, T cell-secreted vesicles tend to home to lymph nodes, spleen and other centers of immune activity. There the vesicles are preferentially taken up by antigen-presenting immune cells, including dendritic cells, which assist in T cell activation, a critical process in the immune response. The researchers found that the overall effect of these vesicles released by activated T cells is to boost the antigen-presenting process, thus promoting T cell priming and broader immune activation. The key payloads in these immune-boosting vesicles turned out to be snippets of T cell DNA.
“These surprisingly abundant DNA fragments are mostly on the surfaces of the vesicles, and are not just random—they are enriched for immune-related genes, including genes that help cells display antigens to the immune system,” said co-senior author Haiying Zhang, PhD, an assistant professor of cell and developmental biology in pediatrics and member of the Lyden lab. “We also found that these vesicles have, attached to their surfaces, a special enzyme that acts as a molecular drill, enabling the transfer of vesicle-carried DNA into the nucleus of the recipient cell where they can be expressed transiently,” added study co-first author Diao Liu, PhD, a postdoctoral research associate in the Lyden Lab.
Infusing DNA-carrying vesicles from activated T cells into mice with tumors, the researchers found that the vesicles were taken up not only by antigen-presenting cells but also by tumor cells themselves. The treated tumors grew more slowly and were better infiltrated by T cells and other immune cells, indicating that the vesicles induced a stronger anti-tumor response. “Our work reveals an EV-mediated mechanism through which activated T cells enhance APP across diverse recipient cells—from DCs in physiological conditions to cancer cells across tumor types,” the authors noted. Although cancers—and viruses—frequently suppress the antigen-presenting process to make malignant or infected cells “invisible” to the immune system, the main effect of the extracellular vesicular DNA was to reverse this process, restoring tumor cells’ visibility.
The team demonstrated the effectiveness of this approach, alone and in combination with existing immunotherapy, in preclinical models of three different immunologically silent cancers: glioblastoma, pancreatic and triple-negative breast cancer. “By boosting APP machinery, ATEVs enhance tumor immunogenicity and elicit robust anti-tumor responses, particularly when combined with ICIs in otherwise resistant tumors, including pancreatic, breast, and brain cancers,” they stated. “These findings reveal the translational potential of activated T cell-derived extracellular vesicles (ATEVs) by exploiting a naturally occurring immune-boosting process to overcome immune evasion, particularly in immunologically silent cancers.”
Co-senior author Irina Matei, PhD, an assistant professor of immunology research in pediatrics and member of the Lyden lab, stated, “There seems to be a positive-feedback loop, in which the DNA-carrying vesicles from activated T cells amplify the immune response by acting on both antigen-presenting cells, which increase expression of the machinery processing tumor antigens, and tumor cells, promoting their recognition by the immune system as well as their own production of DNA-laden vesicles.”
The researchers are now working to translate their findings into a new, vesicle-based cancer treatment, which could be used on its own or in conjunction with standard immunotherapies or other cancer treatments. “The surprising ability of these vesicles to transfer DNA from donor T cells into the nuclei of recipient cells suggests their potential as a natural, non-viral platform for transient gene delivery,” said co-first author Mengying Hu, PhD, a postdoctoral research associate in the Lyden Lab who led the research and is now an assistant professor of pharmaceutical sciences at the Ohio State University. “The results point to a broadly applicable gene-transfer strategy that may offer improved safety and efficiency compared with current gene therapy approaches.”
In their paper the authors concluded, “Overall, ATEVs emerge as an acellular immunotherapy and delivery modality that can prime antitumor immunity, synergize with existing therapies, and serve as a vaccine adjuvant,” they concluded. “Our findings provide a foundation for the therapeutic application of ATEVs through a deeper understanding of the biological role of AT-EVDNA.”
The post DNA-Containing Extracellular Vesicles Boost Antitumor Responses in Mice appeared first on GEN – Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology News.
New research published by scientists at the University of California, San Diego (UCSD), describes an unexpected factor underlying T-cell exhaustion. The details of their work in mice are published in a new Cell paper titled “Proteostasis sustains T-cell differentiation potential and tumor-infiltrating lymphocyte function.”
T cells are critical members of the immune system but there are limits to their defensive capabilities. When fighting cancer cells, T cells often burn out and become dysfunctional. A major focus of current cancer immunotherapy efforts is rescuing T cells from this state and getting them back into cancer-fighting shape. The new Cell study led by scientists in the lab of Ananda Goldrath, PhD, a professor of molecular biology at UCSD, and their collaborators elsewhere, suggests that a potential solution to T-cell exhaustion might have to do with protein recycling.
Specifically, their finding has to do with proteostasis, the network of cellular processes that orchestrates the proper construction, movement, and destruction of proteins in cells. A component of this network features a type of recycling function where healthy cells continuously dismantle old and damaged proteins to preserve energy and reuse building blocks to make new proteins. According to the paper, the scientists uncovered an impaired protein recycling function as the surprise culprit in T-cell exhaustion.
“We found that exhausted T cells’ recycling programs are falling apart, leading to damaged and misfolded proteins that pile up with nowhere to go,” said Nicole Scharping, PhD, a post-doctoral fellow in the Goldrath lab and lead author on the paper. Additionally, the scientists also uncovered a way to reverse the accumulation of misfolded proteins by fixing the broken recycling function and restoring normal proteostasis. As Scharping explained, the issue can be resolved with a “tag and sort” fix. This is accomplished using E3 ligase enzymes which act as labelers at a recycling facility, tagging worn-out proteins so the cell knows to break them down.
“In exhausted T cells, many of these enzymes get switched off, and recycling grinds to a halt,” said Scharping. After examining thousands of proteins, the scientists honed in on NEURL3, RNF149 and WSB1 as the E3 ligases responsible for rescuing T cell recycling functions. “When we restored specific E3 ligases, the buildup cleared, and the T cells regained their function and worked better at clearing tumors.” While the new study was conducted in mice, the researchers indicate that similar strategies could be employed for immunotherapy treatments in human cancer.
Importantly, the findings may have implications in other diseases as impaired protein processing is not unique to exhausted T cells. “We think this loss of proteostasis resembles what occurs in neurons in other protein aggregate diseases such as Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s,” said Goldrath. “Rescuing these cells from exhaustion could improve the ability of T cells to respond to both chronic infection as well as tumors.”
The post Restoring Protein Recycling Reverses T-Cell Exhaustion in Mice appeared first on GEN – Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology News.
Cytiva and Rockwell Automation launched the figurate supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) system designed to remove digital bottlenecks during biopharmaceutical manufacturing. Working across multiple instrument vendors and modalities, Figurate SCADA provides the connectivity needed to enable digital integration to advance modern bioprocessing, according to Matt Weaver, vice president of global industry life sciences at Rockwell.
“Biopharma teams are under pressure to move more quickly, but their systems are often not built to keep up,” says Weaver. “This collaboration with Cytiva marks a pivotal step in our mission to democratize digital manufacturing, enabling biopharma innovators to deploy SCADA faster, smarter and more affordably.”
Many biopharma teams have long juggled proprietary systems that cannot communicate with one another, creating operational silos, manual workarounds, and data integrity risks. The new system directly addresses this roadblock by having an open architecture, allowing for third-party instrument integration, and real-time oversight of integration capable unit operations from a single interface, notes a Cytiva spokesperson, who explains that the platform features include:
“This collaboration is designed to empower the next generation of biomanufacturers,” says Nicolas Pivet, manufacturing and digital solutions at Cytiva.
Industry data shows increasing demand for next generation process control systems as organizations transition toward data driven process intensification and continuous manufacturing. Equipment fragmentation remains one of the top pain points cited by biomanufacturers, particularly those advancing programs from R&D to clinical scale. By giving teams a unified digital control layer, the Figurate SCADA reduces the risk of human error, accelerates tech transfer, and supports reliable scaleup as workloads grow in complexity, points out the Cytiva spokesperson.
The post Figurate SCADA System Launched to Overcome Digital Bottlenecks During Biopharma Manufacturing appeared first on GEN – Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology News.
Companies are taking control of their own data to tailor AI for their needs. The challenge lies in balancing ownership with the safe, trusted flow of high‑quality data needed to power reliable insights. This conversation from MIT Technology Review’s EmTech AI conference examines how AI factories unlock new levels of scale, sustainability, and governance—positioning data control as a strategic imperative for governments and enterprises.
Chris Davidson is Vice President of HPC & AI Customer Solutions at Hewlett Packard Enterprise. He leads HPE’s global strategy for AI Factory solutions and Sovereign AI, working with governments, enterprises, and research institutions to build secure, scalable national- and enterprise-grade AI capabilities.
He also directs Product Management and Performance Engineering across HPE’s HPC and AI portfolio, including large-model training platforms and Cray exascale systems. His teams define product strategy, performance architecture, and deployment models that position HPE at the forefront of high-performance and AI computing.
During his nine years at HPE, Chris has led key initiatives across Performance Engineering, AI Cloud, and Professional Services, shaping how HPE delivers optimized, cloud-native, and globally deployed high-performance systems. He previously held technical and leadership roles in the biotech and medical diagnostics sectors.
Chris holds an M.B.A. in Entrepreneurship and Finance and a B.S. in Biology from Loyola University Chicago.
Mallikarjun (Arjun) Shankar is the Division Director for the National Center for Computational Science at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory. His research focuses on the interdisciplinary bridge between computer science and large-scale scientific discovery campaigns that rely on scalable computing and data science. He is a joint faculty appointee at the University of Tennessee’s Bredesen Center, a senior member of the IEEE and a senior member of the ACM.
This is today’s edition of The Download, our weekday newsletter that provides a daily dose of what’s going on in the world of technology.
A new US-wide cell phone network marketed to Christians is set to launch next week. It blocks porn using network-level controls that can’t be turned off—even by adult account owners.
It’s also rolling out a filter on sexual content aimed at blocking material related to gender and trans issues, optional but turned on by default across all plans.
The trouble is, many websites don’t fit neatly into one category. That leaves its maverick founder with broad, subjective control over what is allowed or banned. Read the full story.
—James O’Donnell
The San Francisco–based startup Goodfire has released a new tool, Silico, that lets researchers peer inside an AI model and adjust its parameters during training. It could give users more control over how this technology is built than was once thought possible.
The goal is to make building AI models less like alchemy and more like a science. Using a technique called mechanistic interpretability, Silico maps the neurons and pathways inside a model and lets developers tweak them to reduce unwanted behaviors or steer outputs.
By exposing the “knobs and dials,” Goodfire hopes to bring AI training closer to traditional software engineering. Read the full story.
—Will Douglas Heaven
This past week delivered another gut punch for science in the US. This time, the target was the National Science Foundation—a federal agency that funds major research projects to the tune of around $9 billion. On Friday, the 22 scientists overseeing those efforts were all fired.
Since 2025, the NSF has faced budget cuts, grant terminations, and mass firings, with staff numbers down sharply and many ambitious projects grinding to a halt. The result is a major shift in how American science is funded and governed. Discover what it means, and what’s next.
—Jessica Hamzelou
This article first appeared in The Checkup, MIT Technology Review’s weekly biotech newsletter. To receive it in your inbox every Thursday, and read articles like this first, sign up here.
Silicon Valley AI companies follow a familiar playbook: keep the models behind an API and charge for access. China’s leading AI labs are playing a different game, releasing “open-weight” models that developers can download, adapt, and run on their own hardware.
That approach went mainstream after DeepSeek open-sourced its R1 model, which matched top US systems at a fraction of the cost. It also won something subtler: goodwill with developers. A growing cohort of Chinese labs is now following the same blueprint.
As AI shifts from hype to deployment, open-source models are making the future of AI more multipolar than Silicon Valley expected. Read the full story.
—Caiwei Chen
China’s open-source bet is one of the 10 Things That Matter in AI Right Now, our list of the biggest ideas, trends, and advances in AI today. We’re unpacking one item from the list each day here in The Download, so stay tuned.
The must-reads
I’ve combed the internet to find you today’s most fun/important/scary/fascinating stories about technology.
1 Elon Musk has admitted that xAI trained Grok on OpenAI models
“Distillation” is standard practice in AI, despite being legally dubious. (Wired $)
+ The White House has accused Chinese firms using distillation of theft. (BBC)
+ American labs are widely assumed to use similar techniques. (TechCrunch)
2 A “de-extinction” startup wants to resurrect a long-lost antelope
Colossal Biosciences wants to bring back the bluebuck. (Axios)
+ The company is using genomic editing to revive the animal. (Gizmodo)
+ It previously claimed to have cloned red wolves. (MIT Technology Review)
3 An OpenAI model outperformed ER doctors at diagnosing patients
By analyzing health records data and information provided to physicians. (NPR)
+ But it still must be proven in real-world clinical trials. (Vox)
4 Scientists are trying to power AI data centers with tiny nuclear reactors
They could provide a new way to meet AI’s energy demands. (Gizmodo)
+ We did the math on AI’s energy footprint. (MIT Technology Review)
5 Spotify has started verifying human artists
A new badge will distinguish them from AI. (The Guardian)
+ Spotify has faced criticism for its handling of AI. (BBC)
6 The US is backing a Congolese railway to break China’s grip on critical minerals
The old railroad is key to the race for critical metals in Africa. (Rest of World)
+ The US is also searching for alternative sources. (MIT Technology Review)
7 Huawei is set to overtake Nvidia in China’s AI chip market
It’s expected to capture the largest market share this year. (FT $)
8 Japan is building cardboard drones for the battlefield
The flatpack designs are cheap, disposable, and built at scale. (404 Media)
9 The more young people use AI, the more they hate it
Research shows that Gen Z doesn’t trust GenAI. (The Verge)
10 A new organoid can menstruate—and show how tissue repairs itself
It’s revealing how the uterus can shed without scarring. (Nature)
Quote of the day
—Judge Gonzalez Rogers rebukes attempts by Elon Musk’s lawyer to focus on AI’s existential risks as part of his lawsuit against OpenAI, the New York Times reports.
One More Thing
The materials we need to power our world are shifting from fossil fuels to energy sources that don’t produce greenhouse gas emissions.
Take neodymium, a rare earth metal used in powerful magnets that power everything from smartphones to wind turbines. Its story reveals many of the challenges we’ll likely face across the supply chain in the coming century and beyond.
The question isn’t whether we’ll run out, but how we extract, process, use, and recycle these materials as technology keeps changing. Find out what it reveals about the future of our planet’s resources.
—Casey Crownhart
We can still have nice things
A place for comfort, fun and distraction to brighten up your day. (Got any ideas? Drop me a line.)
+ Here’s a fascinating visual history of exploring the dark side of the Moon.
+ This interactive map lets you compare the actual dimensions of our world.
+ These five tiny homes are proof you don’t need a massive footprint to live with style.
+ Explore the history of “Control Room Green” and why it was the default choice for the Cold War’s highest-stakes environments.
Top image credit: Stephanie Arnett/MIT Technology Review | Adobe Stock
Nature Biotechnology, Published online: 01 May 2026; doi:10.1038/s41587-026-03113-4
TxPert predicts unseen single transcriptomic perturbations with accuracy approaching split-half experimental reproducibility.
Nature Biotechnology, Published online: 01 May 2026; doi:10.1038/s41587-026-03120-5
Synthetic DNA guides (crDNA) reprogram Cas12a nucleases for RNA targeting.