People learn from experience, but with considerable individual differences in the degree and type of behavioral adjustments resulting from a given experience. Error driven learning rules provide an elegant framework for explaining both learning behavior and its neural signatures; however, implementing them requires carving the world into so-called “latent states”, that serve as substrates for learning, meaning that the same learning algorithm can produce different sorts of learning given different state representations. Recent theoretical and behavioral work hints that individual differences in learning may reflect differences in how individuals carve their environment into states, with some individuals combining multiple temporal contexts into a single state and others separating these contexts into individuated latent states. Here, we develop a behavioral paradigm and modeling framework to test this idea directly and show in a large cohort of human participants that individuals can be classified into groups according to whether and how they carve temporal contexts into latent states. These behavioral phenotypes impact continual learning, specifically the degree to which individuals avoid interference at context changes or are able to reuse information when encountering a familiar context. We tested whether these behavioral phenotypes related to individual differences in underlying brain connectivity, as measured by resting state-fMRI, but found no evidence for such a relationship. Taken together, this work suggests that learning differences across individuals are attributable to differences in underlying state representations that are not predicted by underlying resting state brain connectivity.
Examining circadian rhythm dysregulation using actigraphy among treatment-seeking individuals with alcohol use disorder
BackgroundIdentifying factors predictive of relapse in patients with alcohol use disorder (AUD) following a period of abstinence and/or treatment is essential to discover effective treatment plans for this disease. Previous evidence found that individuals with AUD who relapsed had lower sleep regularity scores than those who did not relapse. This analysis aimed to extend previous work to explore the relationship between circadian rhythms and relapse.MethodsTreatment-seeking individuals with AUD (n = 126) were admitted to an inpatient treatment program for approximately 28 days and, upon discharge, wore Philips Respironics Actiwatches® for the subsequent 4 weeks during an unprotected environment. A subset of these participants wore the devices prior to discharge for up to 7 days inpatient (n = 36). Relapse status was assigned if a participant consumed any alcohol during the outpatient period of data collection. Inpatient and outpatient circadian rhythm nonparametric statistics were calculated for all participants including weekly interdaily stability (IS) and intradaily variability (IV), and daily most active 10 h (M10), least active 5 h of the day (L5), relative amplitude (RA), and the wake time. Linear and logistic generalized mixed models were fitted to estimate the effect of discharge on circadian rhythms, the effect of preceding circadian rhythms on the probability of relapse, and the effect of relapse on circadian rhythms. All analyses accounted for within-patient repeated measurements.ResultsThe final cohort size was n = 103 for the outpatient subset and n = 36 for the inpatient subset after actigraphy data filtering. Participants were 48.6 ± 11.3 years of age, and 32% were female. A total of 26 (25.2%) participants relapsed. There were significant decreases in IV and L5 and increases in M10, RA, and wake time between inpatient and outpatient settings, whereas IS did not substantially differ between the two settings. Following relapse, there was a moderate decrease in hourly IV and an increase in (later) wake time of ~1 h; no other circadian variables were significantly predictive of relapse.ConclusionOverall, circadian rhythms shifted after discharge but were not predictive of relapse. Instead, relapse was followed by a delayed average wake time and a moderate reduction of daily activity patterns. These results highlight the potential value of monitoring circadian changes as indicators of relapse occurrence rather than relapse risk.
Timing of exercise differentially modulates fear memory and hippocampal neurotransmitters in male rats
Exercise promotes neurogenesis and enhances memory consolidation while reducing the retention of aversive memories and anxiety-like behaviors. While our previous work found that acute exercise alters neurotransmitter concentrations, including dopamine and serotonin, in a time-of-day-dependent manner, the long-term effects of chronically timed exercise on neurotransmitter dynamics and behavioral phenotypes remain unclear. To examine whether the daily timing of a chronic exercise intervention modulates its impact on neurotransmitter profiles and fear responses, male rats were conditioned using a Pavlovian contextual fear approach, then assigned to a 4-week treadmill exercise intervention performed during the early (ZT14) or late (ZT22) active phase or a time-matched sham-exercise control group. One day after completing training, rats underwent a context retrieval test in the middle of active phase (ZT18), and hippocampal neurotransmitters were quantified using UPLC–MRM/MS. Rats subjected to sham-exercise at ZT22 exhibited higher freezing than sham-exercised rats at ZT14, whereas exercise interventions at ZT22 selectively attenuated freezing. Histamine, acetylcholine, and GABA exhibited significant exercise × time interactions. Direct neurotransmitter–freezing correlations were weak after false discovery rate control, consistent with a network-level reorganization rather than a single transmitter driver. These findings suggest that vulnerability to aversive memory expression can be buffered by exercise, if timed appropriately, and that exercise reshapes hippocampal neuromodulatory tone in a circadian–phase–dependent manner, supporting the potential of exercise timing as a chronotherapeutic strategy to enhance stress resilience and mental wellbeing.
A game-theoretic framework for multimodal information utilization under heterogeneous processing environments in neuroscience and perception science
Multimodal data integration is increasingly central to neuroscience and perception science, where heterogeneous signals such as behavioral responses, sensory inputs, electrophysiological recordings, neuroimaging measurements, and computational representations must be jointly interpreted. Based on the realistic background, there is a core theoretical problem that needs further research: under what heterogeneous processing conditions does enhanced multimodal information utilization produce meaningful gains, when does it become strategically necessary, and when does it generate only limited benefits relative to its cost? To clarify this core problem, this study develops a conceptual game-theoretic framework in which information utilization is treated not as a universally beneficial technical upgrade, but as a conditional strategic choice shaped by signal heterogeneity, information asymmetry, integration cost, and differential decision influence across actors. Within this framework, we compare three endogenous strategic profiles—no enhanced information utilization, unilateral information enhancement, and bilateral information enhancement—across multiple heterogeneous environments. The analysis results show that the value of multimodal information utilization is fundamentally environment-dependent. In highly homogeneous environments, additional information processing yields little marginal benefit and is therefore not sustained in equilibrium. In moderately heterogeneous environments, however, multimodal information utilization emerges as a strategically necessary response because it reduces mismatch, improves alignment, and stabilizes decision outcomes. In more asymmetric environments, stronger decision agents capture a disproportionate share of the gains from enhanced information utilization and increasingly rely on differentiated strategic responses, whereas weaker agents adopt more defensive and uniform strategies. In highly dominated environments, the marginal value of additional information utilization declines again because structural dominance itself already secures most attainable advantages. These findings contribute to multimodal neuroscience and perception science by clarifying that the consequences of information utilization depend not only on fusion efficiency, but also on environmental structure, asymmetry, and the distribution of strategic power.
Context-tuned strategies for marker selection precision in neuronal studies
Marker selection precision in neuronal studies is critical for reliable neuron identification. However, it largely depends on the experimental context. Variations in neuronal marker specificity across experimental models, neuronal maturation stages, and neurotransmitter phenotypes have highlighted the vitality of implementing “context-tuned” strategies in marker selection. Neuronal markers arise from canonical protein-coding genes, non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs), including microRNAs (miRNAs), isoform-specific variants, neurotransmitters, and numerous metabolic signatures. Here, we emphasize protein-coding genes as markers because of their wide availability, ease of interpretation, and compatibility with standard detection methods like qPCR, in situ hybridization, immunocytochemistry, and Western blotting. They are also directly linked to cellular structures, signaling pathways, functional importance, and are adaptable across different platforms. We aim to guide the strategic selection and application of neuronal markers to maximize accuracy and interpretive confidence across diverse experimental systems. The review addresses the molecular origin and nature of neuronal markers, their specific applications, including distinguishing neuronal from non-neuronal cells in tissue or histological preparations, identifying neurotransmitter phenotypes in neuronal cultures and tissues, evaluating neuronal maturity in progenitor-derived systems, discriminating between immature and fully differentiated neurons in vitro, and detecting neurons alongside other neuronal or non-neuronal subtypes in mixed populations. Furthermore, it emphasizes positive and negative marker strategies, accounting for developmental timing, cellular specificity, model system differences, and rigorous exclusion of unintended cell types. Through this comprehensive review, we deliver a simplified reference for neuroscientists seeking to enhance the accuracy, specificity, and reproducibility of their neurobiological studies.
Meta-analysis of the effects of exercise intervention on physical health in individuals undergoing compulsory isolation
BackgroundPhysical health is the basic indicator to evaluate the health of drug addicts after the process of drug rehabilitation. In order to better improve the deficiency degree of physical health of drug addicts, it is necessary to carry out a systematic review.ObjectiveTo explore the effects of exercise intervention on the physical health of individuals undergoing compulsory drug rehabilitation using Meta-Analysis, aiming to provide evidence-based support for improving their physical health.MethodsRandomized controlled trials (RCTs) published between 2019 and December 2024, examining the impact of exercise intervention on the physical health of compulsory detoxification individuals, were retrieved from databases including Web of Science, PubMed, Cochrane Library, Medline, China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), Wanfang Data, and VIP Chinese Journal Database. The quality of included studies was assessed using the Cochrane risk-of-bias assessment tool. RevMan 5.4 software was employed for heterogeneity testing, effect size synthesis (using mean difference [MD] and 95% confidence interval [CI]), and generation of forest plots, funnel plots, and quality assessment diagrams. Subgroup analyses were performed to evaluate sensitivity and heterogeneity of the included studies.ResultsExercise intervention effectively improved the physical health of compulsory drug rehabilitation individuals, particularly in physical fitness indicators: sit-and-reach test [MD = 3.92, 95%CI = (3.23, 4.62), P<0.001], single-leg standing with eyes closed [MD = 7.03, 95%CI = (6.05, 8.02), P<0.001], grip strength [MD = 1.23, 95%CI=(0.06, 2.39), P = 0.04], and choice reaction time [MD=-0.03, 95%CI=(-0.05, -0.01), P = 0.002]. Improvements in physical function were also observed; however, the increase in vital capacity [MD = 86.81, 95%CI=(-1.56, 175.17), P = 0.05] did not reach statistical significance.ConclusionThis meta-analysis provides evidence that exercise intervention significantly improves specific physical health deficits—namely flexibility (sit-and-reach), balance (single-leg stance), muscular strength (grip strength), cardiopulmonary function (vital capacity), and sensorimotor coordination (choice reaction time)—in individuals undergoing compulsory rehabilitation. It is recommended to adopt a combination of aerobic and traditional fitness exercises, with at least 3 sessions per week, each lasting no less than 40 minutes, and a duration of over 12 weeks, providing scientific evidence for drug rehabilitation practices. These indicators were selected because they directly reflect the multisystem damage (muscular, neural, and cardiorespiratory) caused by chronic substance use. However, this study acknowledges the limitation that psychological and neurocognitive outcomes (e.g., cravings, mood, executive function), which are crucial in addiction treatment, were not included in the eligibility criteria and systematic analysis. The follow-up research will combine physical and psychological indicators to conduct a comprehensive evaluation of the intervention effect of exercise on drug rehabilitation.Systematic review registrationhttps://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/, identifier CRD420251029820.
RecoveryWorks: vocational support services for recovery capital growth
This paper introduces RecoveryWorks, a multi-system recovery and vocational support program designed to expand the therapeutic landscape of recovery by increasing access to career development resources that support meaningful employment. In contrast to vocational approaches that prioritize rapid job placement, RecoveryWorks embeds work within a recovery-oriented system of care. By linking the underutilized human capital of individuals in recovery to community resources, the program aims to generate reciprocal gains in personal and community recovery capital over time.
Research trends and knowledge mapping of transcranial direct current stimulation in depression: a bibliometric study based on web of science, Scopus, and PubMed (2000-2025)
BackgroundDepressive disorders are clinically heterogeneous and mechanistically complex psychiatric conditions. Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), a key non-invasive neuromodulation technique, has expanded rapidly in both therapeutic application and mechanistic research. However, the field is marked by rapid publication growth, thematic diversity, and variability in evidence quality. A systematic quantitative synthesis is therefore needed to map the research landscape, identify hotspots, and inform future directions.MethodsA systematic search was conducted for English-language publications in the Web of Science Core Collection (WoSCC), Scopus, and PubMed using the terms (“Transcranial direct current stimulation” OR “tDCS”) AND (“depression” OR “major depressive disorder” OR “depressive disorder” OR “MDD”). Only articles and reviews were included. Records from 2026 and non-research publications, including conference abstracts, editorials, letters, news items, and errata, were excluded. Deduplication was performed using DOI-based matching followed by title-assisted matching. Bibliometrix (R), VOSviewer, and CiteSpace were used to analyze publication trends, contributions by countries/regions, institutions, authors, and journals, collaboration networks, keyword co-occurrence, thematic clustering, and burst terms. Citation analysis was based on WoSCC data only.ResultsResearch on tDCS for depression showed sustained growth, with marked acceleration after 2020 and a peak in 2024. The United States, Germany, and Brazil occupied central positions in both productivity and international collaboration, with the United States ranking first in publication volume. Major research hubs included the Universidade de São Paulo, the University of Toronto, and Harvard University, while Brain Stimulation, Journal of Affective Disorders, and Frontiers in Psychiatry were the leading publication venues. Highly cited studies mainly focused on neurophysiological mechanisms, pivotal randomized controlled trials, and evidence-based guidelines. Keyword analyses indicated a shift from early attention to cortical excitability, safety, and short-term efficacy toward a more integrated framework involving prefrontal-targeted stimulation, cognitive function, functional connectivity, treatment outcomes, and cross-disorder applications.ConclusiontDCS research in depression is entering a multidimensional and interdisciplinary phase, with increasing emphasis on network-level mechanisms and precision intervention. Functional connectivity is emerging as a potential biomarker for patient stratification and outcome prediction. Further progress depends on multicenter standardization, reproducible analytic pipelines, and high-quality comparative effectiveness research.
Case Report: Prism for PTSD in severe traumatic brain injury with psychiatric comorbidities: two cases
BackgroundTraumatic brain injury (TBI) with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is treatment-resistant, with conventional psychotherapy showing limited efficacy due to neurocognitive impairments.Case SummaryWe report two patients with severe TBI and psychiatric comorbidities treated with Prism neurofeedback.Case 144-year-old female, 35 years post-childhood TBI, with agoraphobia and hyperacusis, achieved 42% PTSD reduction and substantial functional gains (social reintegration, independent driving) sustained through 4-month follow-up.Case 240-year-old male, 3.5 years post-adult TBI with bipolar II disorder and severe PTSD (PCL-5 = 62), achieved 90% PTSD reduction with complete remission sustained at 1-month follow-up, enabling return to work and family system transformation. Both patients developed personalized regulatory strategies and maintained gains without relapse.ConclusionsPrism neurofeedback demonstrates clinically meaningful outcomes in severe TBI-PTSD where traditional psychotherapy shows limited efficacy. The intervention’s circumvention of cognitive processing demands may explain the favorable outcomes. Controlled trials are warranted.
Tryptophan modulates the impact of prolactin on insomnia in perimenopausal women: a cross-sectional study
BackgroundInsomnia is highly prevalent among perimenopausal women and exerts detrimental effects on physical health, psychological well-being, and overall quality of life. However, its underlying mechanisms remain incompletely understood. This cross-sectional study aimed to identify factors associated with insomnia in perimenopausal women.MethodsA total of 187 perimenopausal women aged 45–55 years were enrolled. Insomnia, anxiety, and depression severity were assessed using the Insomnia Severity Index (ISI), Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7), and Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9), respectively. Serum levels of relevant amino acids and hormones were measured. Spearman correlation and linear regression analyses were performed to examine the associations among prolactin levels, tryptophan levels, insomnia, anxiety, and depression. Moderation analysis was further conducted to evaluate the potential moderating role of tryptophan in these relationships.ResultsSerum prolactin levels were positively associated with scores of ISI, GAD-7, and PHQ-9. Furthermore, prolactin levels were positively correlated with the severity of sleep-onset difficulties, sleep maintenance problems, noticeability of impairment, and sleep-related distress. Of note, serum tryptophan levels significantly moderated the association between prolactin levels and ISI scores (β = 0.227, 95% CI = 0.04–0.41, p = 0.0148). To wit, he positive relationship between prolactin levels and insomnia severity was stronger in perimenopausal women with higher serum tryptophan levels compared with those with lower levels.ConclusionsThe moderating effect of serum tryptophan on the relationship between prolactin levels and insomnia in perimenopausal women helps us understand the neuroendocrine mechanisms underlying perimenopausal insomnia and may inform future research on targeted preventive and therapeutic strategies.